Until the 1970’s, it was difficult for African Americans to find work in either Fort Madison or Keokuk. When they did get hired it was mainly for dirty, dangerous work or unskilled low-paying jobs with a general policy of “last hired, first fired.”

Many steamboats had to have their freight and passengers transferred to smaller boats (called “lightering”) to travel over the rapids in low water, creating opportunities for employment of unskilled workers, including many African Americans. The Army Corps of Engineers bypassed the rapids with a canal in 1867, which proved to be problematic. The Corps decided to replace it with a lock and dam that included a hydroelectric plant. African Americans were hired to work on this project which began in 1910 and was completed in 1913.

Photo of work on Coffer dam ~Courtesy of the Keokuk Public Library